Treffer: Reducing the low-prevalence effect with probe trials.

As targets become rare in visual search tasks, the likelihood of missing them increases-a phenomenon known as the low-prevalence effect (LPE). This has important implications for real-world searches, but reducing the LPE has proven challenging. In Experiment 1, we used a low-prevalence T-among-Ls task and found that distributing "probe" trials-trials with known targets and post-response feedback-reduced the LPE. In Experiment 2, participants searched for two low-prevalence targets (T and O among Ls and Qs), and we varied how often each appeared in probe trials. The probe benefit scaled with the frequency of the matching target, suggesting limited generalizability to non-probed targets. Experiment 3 used eye tracking to examine whether probes affected quitting thresholds, decision criteria, or guidance. Results showed that probes biased top-down guidance toward features of frequently probed targets, without affecting the number of items inspected or the decision criterion. In Experiment 4, we tested whether feedback was necessary for the probe benefit. Findings suggest that probes improve rare-target search by altering perceived prevalence, not through feedback alone. Overall, probes may reduce the LPE by increasing perceived prevalence and thereby increasing search guidance, but only when probe targets closely match actual search targets.
(© 2026. The Author(s).)

Declarations. Ethics approval and consent to participate: This research was approved by the Human Research Protection Program at Michigan State University (IRB# X17-087eD). The procedures used in this study adhere to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki.Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Consent for publication: Participants signed informed consent regarding publishing their data. Competing interests: The authors have no conflicts of interest to report.